This has been an exciting competition from the opening announcement on July 9, 2009 at the annual IGARSS conference in Cape Town, South Africa to the close of  blogging on December 15. The contest received enquiries and essays from students around the globe. This response met our overall goal of stimulating thinking about sustainability worldwide. We are deeply appreciative of the efforts of all the contestants who submitted essays, the finalists for maintaining engaging blogs and the dozens who raised the level of discourse by posting thought-provoking comments and questions.

We are also deeply appreciative of the competition judges, who selected the seven finalists and chose the winners on the basis of their essay blogs. We also congratulate Dr. David F. Mullins, Associate Editor for Education, for doing an excellent job managing Earthzine’s first essay competition. We are grateful to the IEEE Foundation for sponsoring the competition and its prizes.

If you haven’t read these essays already, please take a few moments to do so. I think you will share our feelings of encouragement and hope that the passionate commitment evidenced by these students will be utilized in their home countries. Each essay demonstrates the great potential  Earth observation has for discovering and implementing sustainable remedies for the difficult environmental problems we are experiencing on Earth.

Please stay connected to www.Earthzine.org for notice of the 2010 Student Essay Competition!

Paul E. Racette, D.Sc.
Editor-in-Chief

Uganda Martyrs University

e-nvironment: A sustainable future for our planet

Sustainability per se is a broad and crucial subject. All basic aspects that underlie sustainable development seek to find a way to fulfill the required needs while minimising environmental damage and misuse of resources.

Agriculture is among the primary driving forces behind our planet, which constitutes the major concern in this context. Therefore, the involvement of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides to enhance agricultural production has ironically led to its downfall. While many countries have adopted these mechanisms, the consequences have either not been extensively thought about or simply ignored. From the time of the ‘Green revolution’ when these scientific mechanisms were widely promoted, developing countries were not immediately involved in these plans. Thus, with the coming of Western revolutionary ideas, the agricultural mechanisation ideals were forcibly implemented without the consent of the locals. Development in context seeks to address the needs of the people in question, considering their capabilities, requirements, their participation, and future consequences. The synthetic chemicals do not necessarily apply in this context and their implementation in developing countries only brought more harm than good.

Ultimately, for agricultural enhancement to be achieved, principal concerns of the persons in question need to be the fundamental aspects considered.

The Concept of development is so extensive that it touches all facets of life. Our analysis focuses on the environmental aspect. But one cannot focus on one aspect to the detriment of others, because such an approach will fail to be holistic, and so fail to address that particular developmental issue.

As far as the environment is concerned, greater understanding of the role that agriculture can play in improving economic and nutritional well-being will be required. Actually, agriculture, the study and practice of farming, constitutes the core source of human basic needs.

Some fifty years ago, the world faced a number of serious problems, including malnutrition for those who could at least get some food, as well as famine for others who are deprived. Therefore, it is up to us to learn how to address these issues in a way that we will survive after all. This paper addresses the ways that humanity, in the name of development, is dealing with its environment as far as agriculture is concerned.

As populations grow, environmental problems become more and more severe. The effects of environmental degradation and inadequate natural resource management are increasingly evident throughout the world. Moreover, the fact is many environmental problems are interconnected, as George W. Norton et al. (2008) have noted. Deforestation, soil erosion, overgrazing, energy depletion, climate change, desertification, silting of rivers and reservoirs are inextricably linked.

Sound environmental management is generally recognized to be essential for sustainable agricultural and economic development. To my mind, sustainable agriculture is the ability of a productive system to maintain its productivity over time, without severe or permanent degradation of land resources and/or ecosystems.

Agricultural productivity refers to farm output at harvest time, compared to the original inputs:

Some degradation can be intentional, but most is the unintended result of people or governments seeking means of solving immediate food and economic crises, often at the cost of long-term damage to the environment. Tesfa G. Gebremedhin and Ralph D. Christy have pointed out that the shift towards large-scale agriculture accelerates environmental degradation and reduces the quality of rural life.

In fact, we have already had significant evidence to demonstrate the effects of replacing traditional agricultural methods with chemical and technological “modern” methods. The first big push for such a shift came during the “Green Revolution,” beginning in the 1940′s. With the onset of the Cold War, with populations starving and discontent around the world, Western powers were eager to do something to assuage peoples ‘dissatisfaction, in hopes of deterring them from turning to communism as a solution. And so, in order to avoid a “Red Revolution,” Western scientists presented the idea of a “Green Revolution,” a technological revolution in farming that would increase agricultural yields, thereby keeping everyone fed and satisfied, without need to turn to communism. Therefore, the Green Revolution moved forward as a development strategy.

Farmers were taught to use engineered seeds, along with fertilizers designed to complement them. With carefully measured ingredients, crops were sure to be resilient to weeds and pests, produce higher yields, and reduce work and soil runoff, as they did not require so much tilling. Farmers across the world, particularly in Asia, abandoned traditional techniques of intercropping in favour of introducing Green Revolution inputs.

At the present time, however, western researchers, in the name of a development, are attempting to resolve worldwide hunger. Did the “Green Revolution” succeed in resolving world hunger, or merely introduce a more serious issue? The impacts of such a shift are multi-faceted and include a loss of community autonomy as well as community relationships, lost biodiversity, soil depletion, poverty, with little reduction in hunger.

Even though “most hunger is caused by a failure to gain access to the locally available food or to the means to produce food directly” (Peter C. Timmer et al., 1983), the Green Revolution failed to acknowledge the issue of distribution, and thus largely failed in eradicating hunger. Are people hungry because the world does not produce enough food? No. In the aggregate, the world produces a surplus of food. If the world food supply were evenly divided among the world’s population, each person would receive substantially more than the minimum amount of nutrients required for survival. The world is not on the brink of starvation. (George W. Norton et al., 2008).

World hunger is not caused by food shortages. People are hungry because they are too poor to buy the food available, not because there is not enough. Furthermore, “the less conspicuous but more pernicious problem, in terms of people suffering and dying, is chronic malnutrition.” Even good estimates depend on the definition used for this concept, a conservative estimate suggests that roughly 800 million people suffer from chronic and severe malnutrition associated with food deprivation (The Economics of the Agricultural Development: World Food Systems and Resource Use, 2008, p.6).

In fact, in Asia, where Green Revolution agriculture was most widely adopted, we now find two-thirds of the world’s undernourished population. So the Green Revolution has done little to address the issue of world hunger.

It must be noted that in several cases, such as Mexico and India, Green Revolution agriculture did exactly what it promised to do, namely, to increase agricultural yields. Unfortunately, however, more food in the world does not necessarily mean less hunger.

There is need to remind the “fans” of modernization, especially the modernization of agriculture, of the boomerang effect of modernization through the experience of Punjab, which used to be the flag-bearer of the Green Revolution and the most prosperous region in India, but today is in a sorry state (George W. Norton et al., 2008).

Humanity has come to know how to congratulate those who are able to introduce scientific innovations, however harmful these may turn out to be, but fails to sympathize with those who suffer negative effects from scientific research and discovery, even though the latter constitute a significant proportion of people affected.

Dr. Paul Hermann Muller, the Swiss inventor of the organochlorine insecticide DDT, won the Nobel Prize of Physiology in 1948. DDT, a bug-killing synthesis of Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane, was the first synthetic insecticide to be widely used, yet is now considered to be highly hazardous, so is widely banned for agricultural use, according to the World Health Organization classification (New Internationalist 323, May 2000: The Facts on the Pesticides). Under United States law, a pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest, and also for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant. Pests can be insects, mice and other animals, unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, or microorganisms like bacteria and viruses [URL Available online http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about, Accessible on 22 August 2003].

Soil nutrient reserves are being depleted because of continued exploitation of nutrients without adequate replenishment. The consequent downward spiral of soil fertility has led to a corresponding decline in crop yields, food insecurity, food aid, and environmental degradation (Andre Batino et al., 2007).

Nikki Van Der Gaag has pointed out that organophosphate compounds include some of the most toxic chemicals used in agriculture. All have a cumulative effect with chronic exposure causing progressive inhibition of cholinesterase.

Van Der Gaag says that parathion is one of the most dangerous pesticides in the world; three drops are enough to kill a grown man. It is banned in most countries, but poor farmers buy it from illegal street shops and markets just because it is cheap and effective, and they have no idea of the dangers involved. Today, the World Health Organisation estimates that at least 3 million people a year are poisoned by pesticides, and that 200,000 people die. It is estimated that up to 25 million agricultural workers are poisoned every year. Pesticides are not just responsible for accidental poisonings; they have become a part of us and our environment in a way that could never have been imagined half a century ago: Pesticides waft into the air, sink into the soil, and leach into rivers and streams. Nor are they restricted to humans; they affect all living things from the smallest invertebrate to the largest whale.

An ecological study has demonstrated that 672 million birds are exposed to pesticides every year, and 10 per cent or 67 million, die. Our biodiversity is in a crucial danger. Among many other examples, we say that in China, 42,800 new cases of pesticide poisoning were reported in 1994, including 3,900 fatalities. Many were said to be victims of home-made cocktails marketed illegally (Bugs in System, edited by William Vorley and Dennis Keeney, Earthscan, London 1998). Acute pesticide poisoning is common, and little is known about potential long-term health effects.

What is shocking is the fact that hundreds of pests have become resistant to chemicals, and the number is growing. World pest populations have increased as pesticides kill natural predators of pests. As resistance to pesticides builds up and predators are reduced, future production potentials are jeopardized. And society bears the cost of off-farm pollution.

Here is the reason for questioning our conscience: “Why poison ourselves?” a precautionary approach to synthetic chemicals by Chris Bright (World Watch Paper 153, November 2000). Peter Rosset extols the virtues of the small farm model by “Kicking the Chemical Habit.” That is why, according to the Indian Environmentalist Vandana Shiva: “Every farmer is in debt and despair. Vast stretches of land have become water-logged deserts. And as an old farmer pointed out, even the trees have stopped bearing fruit because heavy use of pesticides has killed the pollinators, the bees and butterflies. Native seeds have been displaced by new hybrids, which are not perennial and so need to be purchased every year at high costs. Hybrids are also vulnerable to pests’ attacks. Now farmers are consuming the same pesticides as a way of killing themselves, in order to escape permanently from unpaid debts!” Misuse of Chemical pesticides and fertilizers has contaminated land and water, damaging the health of producers and consumers, and stimulating the emergence of pests’ resistance to pesticides.

‘Much of the food we eat contains pesticide residues. Although many of these do not exceed allowed levels for adult consumption, no one knows what the build-up of poison over time does to our bodies. Nor has the effects on babies and children been calculated. What we do know is that many of these pesticides can cause cancer or have other adverse effects on animals, humans and the environment…’ (New Internationalist 323, May 2000)

The Pesticide Action Network (PAN) has drawn up a list of twelve dangerous pesticides, which are well known as the “Dirty Dozen.” Almost all are in the World Health Organization’s hazardous category.

So what has been the argument for the continuing use of pesticides? One could eventually say they increase crop yields.

First of all, however, we do not need more food; we just need a fairer way of distributing it.

Secondly, eight per cent of pesticides are used in the rich world, and many of these are used not to grow food for humans but to produce animal feed for livestock. Hence, this becomes an escalating cycle of poison! [URL Available online http://www.pan-international.org, Accessible on 23 Septembre 2005]

Finally, most pesticides in the Thirdly World are used on export crops, most of which are eaten by people in the West.

Furthermore, pesticides are big business. If pesticides were banned altogether, billions of dollars in food production would be lost, says the agro-industry.

All in all, while alternative development strategies can be followed, agriculture has an important role to play in overall development, especially in most developing countries.

“How can agriculture be improved to facilitate its role in providing food and contributing to overall development?” asked George W. Norton et al. (2008).

Land is source of food, shelter, tools, health, burials, in short LAND IS LIVELIHOOD (Rupert Hambira, 1999).

To my mind, by its essence and its nature, agriculture should also have something to do with culture. Here, Culture not only refers to ‘growing, cultivating’ but to some extent it also relates to ‘originality, authenticity’.

For generation after generation, numerous communities in the Global South practised subsistence farming. Within a village, they had the capacity to produce food they needed to survive. As such, these communities were self-sufficient and members of the communities maintained strong relationships.

However, these communities are now dependent in several ways on the Western world for their livelihoods: not only did they require a steady stream of imported agricultural inputs (demand increased by the inability to save and reuse suicide seeds), but they now had to export their crops- often producing luxury crops that could not sustain their own diets but were in high demand in Western countries.

And so, the rise of the pesticide industry has just transformed ‘agriculture’ into another deal, ‘agribusiness’ to the detriment of small farmers who farm more ecologically but just as productively. Agribusiness is inextricably linked to increased use of agro-chemicals. It is an approach to food production that sees the soil as a source of profit and the earth as a resource to plunder. It sees agriculture only as business and farmers as business people rather than guardians of the land!

Traditional methods, such as the abandonment of a piece of land for gaining fertility, shifting cultivation, fallowing, rotation of crops, organic manuring were and are, systems for land rehabilitation since the equilibrium in nature has been upset, and it should consequently and inevitably, be restored.

Research should go into alternative ways of reducing pests. In any cases, the use of biological means is highly appreciated instead of chemical pesticides as far as the prices paid by people’s health and by the deterioration of the environment are concerned.

Nevertheless, at some point, it will not be possible to switch overnight to completely organic agriculture. There needs to be a transitional period where there is a combination of organic and chemical agriculture.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Norton, G.W.; Alwang, J.; Masters, A.W.,2008. The Economics of Agricultural Development: World food systems and resource use. New York: ISBN.

Bationo, A.; Waswa, B.; Kihara, J.eds., 2007. Advances in Integrated Soil Fertility Management in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and opportunities. USA, Springs.

Boyce, K.J.; Rosset, P.; Stanton, E.A.,2007. Land Reform and Sustainable Development. New York: Anthem Press.

URL: href=” [accessed on March 1, 2000]

Institute of Advanced Management and Technology

Sulaiman Tejan Jalloh
Institute of Advanced Management and Technology
Freetown, Sierra Leone, West Africa

Agriculture

The concept of agriculture for sustainability rests on the principle that we must meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Therefore, stewardship of both natural and human resources is of prime importance in agricultural practices. Stewardship of human resources includes consideration of social responsibilities such as working and living conditions of laborers, the needs of rural communities, and consumer health and safety both in the present and the future. Stewardship of land and natural resources involves maintaining or enhancing this vital resource base for the long term.

For these reasons; a systems perspective is essential to understanding sustainability. The system is envisioned in its widest sense, from the individual farm, to the local ecosystem, and to communities affected by this system both locally and globally. An emphasis on the system allows a larger and more thorough view of the consequences of farming practices on both human communities and the environment. A systems approach gives us the consciousness to explore the interconnections between farming and other aspects of our environment. With this, my focus will be on “Slash – and – Burn Agriculture”

Slash-and-Burn Agriculture

Slash-and-burn agriculture is a common practice in underdeveloped countries. In this system, small plots of forest land are partially cleared, the cut vegetation is burned, and crops are planted in the ashes. Weeds are a significant problem when land availability is so scarce. Fertilizers used to maximize crops also maximize weed growth and thus reduce crop size. Herbicides used to control these weeds are often obtained from developed nations in which they have been banned because of possible water and soil pollution problems or adverse health effects. This paper will deal with a hypothetical situation and look at the technical, economic, environmental, and legal issues relating to sales of such herbicides to an African country.

Subsistence farmers in some African countries have traditionally practiced the slash-and-burn farming technique and the plots are used for one to three years and then left fallow. The primary food crops are rice and maize, with some cassava as a security crop, and vegetables that can be sold in local markets. The crops are usually grown in polyculture. Crops which require the highest nitrogen levels are grown first, then crops with lesser requirements. Once the land is depleted of its nutrients, the area is abandoned.

Concerns over deforestation are prompting environmentalists and the governments of some African countries to take actions in tackling environmental issues, yet little or nothing has been done to protect the environment. My worrying alternative here may be to teach the farmers to use more natural forms of weed killers. Mice should be particularly effective, since rice and maize are the major crops grown by the subsistence farmers. If the mice prove highly successful weed killers, no herbicide may be needed. Even if they are only partially successful, at least the amount of herbicide needed could be reduced and thus reduce concomitantly any associated health risks. Environmentally, permanent farming is much more appealing since it reduces the amount of forest land destroyed by slash-and-burn techniques. However, there is a risk of pollution of water systems when chemicals are used in farming. Run-off occurs and underground water tables can become contaminated. Since the people living on these farms do not usually have access to purified drinking water, there are serious health concerns when chemicals are used in farming in these regions. Permissive standards and lax monitoring allow dangerously high levels of the most widely used weed killers in tap water supplies even in America (Henderson 10-11). In Africa, in most cases no sophisticated water delivery systems exist, and water is drawn from rivers and wells which can easily be contaminated by herbicides.

Uganda Martyrs University

e-nvironment: A sustainable future for our planet

From the time of the Industrial Revolution until the world war era, the primary concern for man was productivity and economic development. Until then, no significant attention was paid to the sustainable development issue. However, the later twenty-first century has been a time of reckoning. Man has come to accept the rather unfortunate fact that the world is headed for catastrophe. Drastic climatic changes, unpredictable food crises, strange maladies, global warming and other aggravated weather-related conditions are all telltale signs that there is a crisis at hand. To a regrettable extent, the causes of these conditions lie in man’s quest for a better and more friendly livelihood.

The discovery of more efficient defense mechanisms, coupled with tremendous technological improvement has ironically led to increased safety and security all over the world, developing countries notwithstanding. Thus, populations are increasing, much faster than the earlier centuries. With this augmentation in human population, there is a dire need for improved and more efficient services to humanity. Food provision, security, energy, health care particularly maternal health, safety, education, sustainable housing, and enhanced living standards are primary pre-requisites for any sort of development to occur.

The immediate concern in this case, is the natural environment. Successful integration between the natural and built environment should be achieved, for sustainability to be attained. While it is paramount for human conditions to improve, the circumstances need to be considered. Thus, alternative energy resources, sustainable architecture and educating people especially the youth about the need for a sustainable future is required since this future duly lies in our hands.

Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution suggested that man as he is today (Homo sapiens) developed from an earlier species of rather less advanced ‘humans’, so to speak. Though highly rejected, especially among the more religious, the theory nevertheless carries substantial significance. Darwin suggested that all life is related and has descended from a common ancestor. Thus, birds, animals, flowers and humans have a certain particular relation. However, due to natural selection, the superior species passed on their traits to their offspring in a continuous cycle which effectively meant that the inferior species would eventually die out. This is what has made man the most dominant creature on earth. On the other hand, the Holy Bible gives a simpler explanation. God created man and made him the most intelligent of His creations. This gave man absolute control over all other things on earth, both living and non-living. ‘Let us make man in our image and likeness to rule the fish in the sea, the birds of heaven, the cattle, all wild animals on earth, and all reptiles that crawl upon the earth’ (Genesis 1: 26, 27.). The authority granted unto man by God is enormous and in effect, made man the most dominant creature on earth.

Needless to say, in both cases, human beings are the victors. Whether scientifically or religiously, the privilege to have utmost control and thus make decisions governing the future of the earth is what has principally led to the development that is occurring today. God gave us the ability to think, create, innovate, communicate better and live longer than anything that has ever existed. Even though Darwin’s theory calls to mind the era of dinosaurs and enormous waters, the Mesozoic era, the sort of development and advancement of the 21^st century cannot possibly be compared to that era. Human ability and zeal to improve and enhance his standard of living has continuously made life on earth much easier and also hastened the development process. Thus, in whichever way man came to be, he is primarily the master of himself.

Again, this dispensation to make life-changing decisions, though positive on the surface has essentially led to all the dilemmas and crises that transpire today. While God made man the ruler of all things on earth, naturally, humanity had to equally select its own leaders. These leaders, though like man in his nature assumed the roles of decision makers and like God created us in His own image, we have the chance to manipulate His creations positively in order to make the world a better place. Hence, through these decision-makers, self-appointed or chosen, particular choices were made for a particular group of people which governed the actions that took place.

In the developmental context, however, resources were needed not only to carry out these actions but also to maintain human lifestyles. Resources were needed to create, to instruct, to innovate and to improve. In any case, God created the earth for man’s own enjoyment and wellbeing. ‘I give you all plants that bear seed everywhere on earth, and every tree bearing fruit which yields seed: they shall be yours for food. All green plants I give for food to the wild animals, to all the birds of heaven and to all the reptiles on earth, every living creature.‘ (Genesis 1: 29, 31). With all these at his disposal, man had the opportunity to develop and enhance his basic standards, with that reassurance that there were resources to do all this readily available. In a wider perspective, man could practically do anything that he wished and this in effect led to the need for more advanced ways of obtaining resources in a manner that was faster and more effective.

Fast forward to the late 18^th century, where the end of feudalism in Britain brought about the start of the Industrial revolution. The British civil war had just ended and a large amount of infrastructure had been destroyed. There was also the issue of hastily increasing populations, fueled partly by the then on-going slave trade from Africa, and the dire need for semi-skilled and skilled labour to work in the ever-increasing factories. Thus, job seekers migrated from all over Europe, particularly Western Europe, to Britain, while the slaves were brought in to work on farms and in the homes of the British aristocrats. Technological advancement was taking place and production became more industrial than agricultural which hastened the necessity for raw materials to be readily available. Again, the issue of nature being man’s only supplier of resources comes in. The immediate resource hub became Africa, what with its extremely fertile soils and indigenous people that had not yet attained the level of development that Europe had reached and were thus willing to produce agricultural raw material to supply the Industrial Revolution. Of particular importance was the fact that Africa also possessed enormous mineral wealth which proved to be of great value to the up and coming technology industry in Europe. The driving force behind the Industrial Revolution was coal, a fossil fuel which replaced wood as the primary source of energy for industries and generation of electricity. The discovery of coal led to a rapid explosion in industry and consequently an inevitable increase in health, wealth and population.

Source: www.wikipedia.org/

In all that industrialization did, it also told people that they had mastered nature and were now apart from and above it. Or so they thought.

The early 20^th century however was a turn of mixed fortunes. On the one hand, resources were quickly running out and the imperative to seek for alternatives seemed to be looming ahead. On the other hand, environmental effects of industrialization were being felt. It became necessary to explore environmentalism as a necessity for human development and also for conservation of natural resources.

Concerns about the environment and impacts of industrialization on the environment had been expressed earlier on in the 1800s. In an essay by Thomas Malthus, he discusses overpopulation and attempts to create a rational theory governing population increase and the available resources. ‘…Assuming my postulata as granted, I say, that the power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man. Population, when unchecked increases in a geometrical ratio,’ Malthus, 1798, Chapter 1. This basically means that the increase in population is inversely proportional to the ability of the earth to produce enough resources to provide for this population. Malthus noticed that the global population was rapidly growing and if unchecked would lead to a situation of deficiency of resources and inevitably food. Essentially, population increase propelled the need for more production, thus a United Nations population increase graph shown below would imply that the availability of sufficient resources in the next 100 years is not entirely realistic.

From the graph, the actual population corresponds with the estimated numbers between 1800 and 1950 and if the current trend continues, which is most likely, then the UN high estimate will occur. This accounts for up to 15 billion people, twice the current population. Interestingly, the rate of increase has also doubled.

There was also the period after World War II and the Great Depression when environmental concerns attracted a lot of interest. Increasing use of fossil fuels, plastics and synthetics were transforming the society while the ‘Green Revolution’ which was entirely based on synthetic fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides were having adverse effects on the environment. In Silent Spring (1962), Rachel Carson challenges mankind on the use of chemical pesticides and their impacts against nature. With particular reference to DDT, a chemical pesticide that was used to eradicate the parasite that spreads malaria, she demanded that man be more conscious about his environment considering that DDT had distinct severely negative effects to the environment and in the long run caused health problems to both plants and humans. Equally, the issue of man being the master of nature also contributed to climatic change. Though it is a major environmental issue today, climate change has been occurring over a period of more than sixty years. Environmental effects of human activities started to be widely studied about after the First World War. The fundamental organisations that took the first steps in research and awareness included the United Nations Organisation which particularly instituted the primary initiatives to counter carbon emissions. At the ‘Earth Summit’ in Rio de Janeiro, 1992, the UNO member states suggested a mechanism that would effectively reduce the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In December 1997, in the Japanese city of Kyoto, the protocol was officially signed and came into force in February 2005. Essentially, industrialised nations were mandated to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% compared to the year 1990. It sought to lower emissions from six particular greenhouse gases: carbondioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexaflouride and two other gas types, hydroflourocarbons and perflourocarbons.

The Kyoto protocol also included three other objectives: emissions trading-an administrative approach to control pollution by providing economic incentvies to reduce emissions of pollutants, clean development mechanism and joint implementation. The various nations involved gave specific limits of emissions that they would achieve until 2010, when the protocol will officially expire.

However, the current trends seem to portray that the protocol contradicts itself. While developed countries attempt to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by searching for alternatives to reduce depletion of natural resources, they, in effect punctuate the entire problem. The replacement of natural foods with genetically modified foods which mature quicker, extensive use of pesticides and artificial fertilizers to control pests, enhancing defense mechanisms to provide security, production of ‘environmentally-friendly’ automobiles and poor land use have all had negative impacts to the climate. Many more resources are being used which are not accounted for and this is essentially the basis of sustainable development. Thus, industrialized nations have come to realize the scarcity of natural resources and in a bid to save the earth while catering for the increasing populations, now look up to artificial alternatives which are in the long run more dangerous.

It is therefore important to appreciate the fact that climate change is primarily fostered by carbon emissions into the atmosphere which arise from human activities. Combustion of fossil fuels to produce energy, use of aerosols, land uses like animal agriculture, construction and deforestation which eventually lead to ozone depletion. Carbon dioxide levels have been substantially high since the Industrial Revolution and levels have increased from 280 ppm¹ to 387 ppm. Projections have it that it could further increase to between 535 ppm to 983 ppm. Increased land use to cater for urban sprawl and agriculture also has distinct climatic effects while cement manufacture per se contributes up to 5% of global man-made carbon emissions. Essentially, greenhouse gases that arise from burning fossil fuels create a layer which keeps the heat within the atmosphere. This, in effect, leads to an increase in overall temperatures. The increase in temperature is further escalated by deforestation. By cutting down trees, especially for settlement and farming, humidity is lost hence low rainfall levels occur. Generally, the effects of increased carbon levels in the atmosphere to climate are rather diverse and deep scientific research indicates the possibility of solar variations-intensification of the Ice Age and thus melting of glaciers which in effect increases sea levels and leads to flooding, change in rainfall patterns hence areas that are normally dry are likely to experience heavy rains while wet areas would have a grave reduction in rainfall levels. As such, the seasons would also change and there is a possibility of shorter winter periods and longer summers, particularly in the Northern hemisphere.

In recent years, however, climate changes have severely affected agriculture. While nature dictates that the amount of natural resources is sufficient for humanity, the recent course of events clearly contradicts this reality. The global food price crisis from 2007-2008 came at a time when global population has started increasing at a quicker rate. Various theories have come up to explain the causes of the food crisis and the debate still rages on. Unseasonable droughts in developing countries, due to unpredictable climate changes, have led to shifts in production and reduced harvests. The rising oil prices have heightened the prices of artificial fertilizers which have in turn raised food prices since they are inevitably used to quicken harvests. The increasing use of biofuels in developing countries as alternatives to energy production has led to scarcity of food. Maize, which is Africa’s principal food staple, has particularly suffered this consequence since it is also the primary cereal used in production of biofuels. The ‘food vs fuel’ phenomenon has occurred whereby food crops are being sacrificed to produce fuel. Essentially, humanity has depleted energy sources and the burning of fossil fuels has been rendered harmful to the environment. Thus, we are trying to solve a problem while inevitably creating another. Worse still, it is not certain that the raw materials of biofuels are sufficient to sustain global production. A World Bank policy research paper produced in July 2008 suggests that ‘…large increases in biofuels production in the United States and Europe are the main reason behind the steep rise in global food prices.’ German Chancellor Angela Merkel heavily disagreed with this claim and stated that poor agricultural policies and changing eating habits in developing countries seem to be the main causes of rising global food prices. Rising ozone levels which lead to changes in seasons and rainfall patterns have directly affected agricultural production. Thus a slump in food harvest quantities inevitably leads to an increase in prices. There is also the issue of civil unrest and insecurity in developing nations which means that farms are not entirely safe, thus food availability is uncertain.

Figure 1: Global Oil Consumption, 1980 – 2003

Clearly, all these misdemeanors arise during man’s quest to achieve better living standards. Hence, a compromise on the environment and natural resources in an attempt to achieve optimum profit from production and sales only makes the already bad situation worse. While developed countries are taking advantage of the weak financial situation in developing nations to get raw materials, these developing nations eventually purchase the finished product at very high prices. Therefore, the global food crisis would still affect developing countries worse than developed countries when ironically, the most natural food is produced in Africa and Asia. Leaders and decision-makers need to choose what is essentially beneficial for their nations and people while putting the future generations at priority and not acting selfishly. Developing countries should be in position to ‘help’ themselves and not rely on donor aid and grants. Former US president Bill Clinton highlighted at the UNO World Food Day on October 16^th 2008 that ‘Food is not a commodity like others. We should go back to a policy of maximum food self-sufficiency. It is crazy for us to think we can develop countries around the world without increasing their ability to feed themsleves.’ Again, amidst all these predicaments lies the natural environment and man. Suffice as it might to say that man has mastered nature, the fact is still, unfortunately clear: man needs nature more than nature needs man. It is also obvious that the activities of humans all have a certain negative impact on the natural environment. These negative effects in one way or the other eventually turn back to humanity since we have, we do and we shall always turn to nature for any solutions to the problems that we face today.

The global food price crisis also calls to mind the drastic health issues affecting, especially, developing nations.

Health, as a natural pre-requisite for man is being altered by human activity. Strange new diseases are being discovered while medecine is proving to be a scarce commodity to many. Needless to say, where health is affected, lives are lost and many more are put at stake. For any sort of development to be successfully achieved, people need to have access to adequate health care. The changing eating habits, increasing populations, increased urban areas and poor government policies have changed the health sector of particularly developing nations. In context, various theories can easily defend this, but the relationship between humanity and the natural environment seems to be at the centre of the entire crisis. The over-dependence on artificial medicines and genetically modified foods which are not entirely sustainable has created a new problem and now we are trying to solve it while creating others. More attention needs to be paid the notion that health issues are environmentally derived. Research scientist Anthony J. Micheal proposed that, ‘…health is not a resource to be consumed to generate wealth but should serve as an index of environmentally sustainable development.’ Health should not be looked at as a reductionist science.

Sustainability in a broader sense would mean the ability to maintain a certain process in its current state. In relation to humanity and human development, sustainability and sustainable development refers to development that ‘meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,’ The Brundtland Commission. Ideally, humans are mandated to consume resources in such a way that everyone receives a fair share. Although sustainability quickly calls to mind the environment, there are three basic aspects that make up sustainable development: economic development, social development and inevitably, environmental development. However several critiques have come out to suggest that cultural development and diversity should be at the forefront of sustainable development citing the various dynamic cultures as the main cause of the changing lifestyles which in turn lead to the different human activities that influence it. Sustainability is an eclectic concept and involves diverse processes and systems. However, considering that all resources that humanity consumes are natural, it is only right that the natural environment be the primary priority in the quest to achieve a sustainable future for our planet. It is in this context that humanity and the natural environment need to strike a balance. On a planet where 20% of the population consumes 80% of the total resources available, one is left to wonder what the other 80% consume. Needless to say, again, developing nations are the most gravely affected. Developed nations insist on the need to competely eradicate pollution, a move which would not only stall any sort of industrial progress in developing countries but also hinder modernisation. In any case, the idea here seems rather simple;– to put humanity before modernity. Under the guise of modernisation and technological advancement, humans have put their lives at stake and now the repercussions seem more apparent than before. Ultimately, it is all a financially driven initiative and the poorer countries suffer most. While everything is being mechanised, developing nations, which cannot mechanise fail to produce sufficiently for the international market and thus remain poor. It is therefore paramount to compromise selfish politics and financial constraints and focus on globalisation since this issue affects us all.

A number of issues need to be addressed, primarily successful integration between the natural and built environment. In his paper, The Strategy of Ecosystem Development (1969), Dr. Eugene P. Odum stresses the need for man to conserve the already fragile ecosystems bearing in mind the fact that it is through nature that we get life, ‘…man does not live by food and fibre alone, he also needs a balanced CO₂-O₂ atmosphere.’ From the problems addressed above, the burning of fossil fuels, inasmuch as it provides the all-important energy, it also deprives of the earth sufficient oxygen and carbon dioxide which are necessary for the earth’s ecosystems to survive. It is also of equal importance to address the deforestation issue. Up to 52% of the world’s biomass is contained in forests as vegetation, ground cover in form of leaves that drop off trees and animals that dwell in forests. In their natural state, forests particularly, the Brazilian Amazon, have by far the largest impact on global climate. Besides their effect in controlling rainfall patterns across the earth, forests also act as nature reserves for the earth’s fragile ecosystems. The burning of forests would therefore, unfortunately, not only destroy a high amount of biomass but also effectively distort weather patterns around the world. The ever increasing global temperatures have been attributed in part to uncontrolled deforestation. The imperative is apparent for humanity to find alternatives to timber or better still, give back to the environment what we get from it, by, for example planting more trees. However, it is not as simplistic as it appears. Many times, forests are cleared to provide land for settlement and agricultural projects and cannot be replaced in this case. Nobel Prize Laureate Wangari Maathai, who is famous for her Green Belt Movement which sparked off a tree planting revolution in her native country, Kenya, realized the need to act fast, ‘in a few decades, the relationship between the environment, resources and conflict may seem almost as obvious as the connection we see today between human rights, democracy and peace.’ The future is entirely upon us to redefine and make sustainable; forests being the first priority. If we are to change the current climatic conditions and achieve friendlier circumstances, then we should compromise on human reluctance to come out of this ‘comfort zone’ and start using forests more wisely without necessarily considering material motives. This also goes hand-in-hand with the rather controversial search for alternative energy sources after petroleum.

Energy use comes in as another major issue that needs to be addressed urgently. Comprehensive studies indicate a rather alarming rate in decline of the availability of oil used and clearly the amount is about to reach a limit that cannot be increased by ingenuity or determination. From the period of the Industrial Revolution, when coal was the only known source of energy, to the commercialization of oil in the early 1800s, there was potentially no significant cause of worry. Besides, oil explorers were discovering many more unexploited oil wells. Even in extreme cases of oil price increases, the motives were often politically inclined and entirely independent of the amounts available. However, recent years have shown that the rate of depletion of petroleum resources is remarkably higher than the rate at which it is produced. The graphs below represent an estimate of world oil demand by region from 1980 to 2003, in comparison to world oil production by region in the same amount of time.

Figure 2: Regional Crude Oil Production, 1980 – 2003

Both figures indicate a sort of balance in oil use and production. However, from the early ’90s, global consumption has been increasing at a steady rate due to equally increasing populations and technological advancement that requires more energy. The production rate has also been increasing steadily although, clearly, more gallons are consumed than produced. Unfortunately, oil resources are running out quicker than man can possibly replace which in a rather sarcastic way is a good thing. It would effectively reduce carbon emissions to the atmosphere, which would ‘repair’ the global climate and make energy use more environmentally friendly. In any case, as David Delaney states in Oil Depletion, 2002, ‘modern economies grow only if transportation grows. Less oil, less transportation, smaller economy. More oil, more transportation, bigger economy…’ It is therefore, fundamentally important to have oil, even though alternatives are necessary. Natural gas is already being used as a source of energy especially for power and transportation purposes.

Predictably, the price of oil will not exactly signal shortages until the decline is apparent since even many years after the peak, there will be a situation of less energy at potentially high prices. This unfortunately does not signify an increase in supply, but an ‘extinction,’ so to speak. Worse still, the large amounts of global economies and investments being invested to obtain alternative energy sources are much larger than the energy investments needed to obtain fossil fuels. It is not even clear if some of these alternatives shall serve as sources of energy. In any case, the other energy sources particularly solar, geothermal, wind and biomass energy should be improved and effected.

While many technological discoveries and innovations are aware of the ecological aspect, a political motive is necessary. Ultimately, the choice lies in the hands of the decision-makers to create the right conditions for any progress to be achieved. The United Nation’s Kyoto Protocol which terminates in 2010 should come up with clear and comprehensive solutions that are practical particularly for developing nations which will inevitably require the petroleum if they are to further develop. Therefore, adequate distribution of resources is paramount for such goals to be achieved and the fundamental problem of finding alternative energy sources must be solved.

Education is a very strong and pivotal tool in development today. Through education, man has been able to impart knowledge to generations, to create, innovate, improve and shape the world. It comes, therefore, as no surprise that the UNESCO has branded this decade (2005-2014), The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. The basic goal is to have the policies, ideals and practices of sustainable development integrated into all sectors of education. Clearly, there is a motive, and the idea to have this sort of education from a very early age presents itself as an array of hope in the quest to obtain a sustainable future. Besides environmental sustainability, this educational effort will also teach young people to grow up with just and rightful thinking for the present and future generations. Education however should not only be theoretical but also practical such that it becomes applicable after school.

The future of our planet lies solely in our hands since we are the people that need it most. Divinity teaches us to respect God’s creation and keep it holy, while fate has taught us that we should have learned this lesson earlier. Now we are paying for what we did decades and centuries ago. While modernization took over the world, man momentarily seemed to brush the humanity issue aside and focus solely on this initiative. Technological advancement quickly took over human development and health concerns. Today, man has realized that man is necessary for man to develop. Modernity becomes useless without the humanity aspect. If development deprives man of certain basic needs, then it is not sustainable. If development does not cater for the future, then it is not sustainable. If development is financially based, and politically motivated, then it is not sustainable. This paper seeks to address the fundamental issue that sustainability is possible and very necessary by first critically looking at the factors that have led to the current situation and then suggesting the primary factors that should be dealt with in the first place.

‘man’s attitude toward nature is today critically important simply because we have now acquired a fateful power to alter and destroy nature. But man is a part of nature, and his war against nature is inevitably a war against himself? We are challenged as mankind has never been challenged before to prove our maturity and our mastery, not of nature but of ourselves.’
- Rachel Carson

References

Alfredo, S. and Ismail S. 1995. Effective Financing of Environmentally Sustainable Development. Washington, World Bank Press.

The New English Bible with the Apocrypha. 1971. Second Edition. New York, Oxford University Press.

Carson, R. 1962. Silent Spring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Mariner Books, New York.

Edward, E. 1996. Models of Sustainable development. Cheltenham.

Colin J. C. and Jean H. L. (1998). The End of Cheap Oil, Scientific American. Retrieved January 30th 2009 from www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/petroleum

Stephan, E. (1997). Thomas Malthus Essay on the Principle of Population. Retrieved January 25th 2009 from www.ac.wwu.edu/stephan/malthus/malthus.O.html

The World Bank Group. (2009). Food Crisis. Retrieved January 30th 2009 from www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/foodprices/

Odum, E.P. (1969). The Strategy of Ecosystem Development. Retrieved January 31st 2009 from www.habitat.aq.upm.es/boletin/n26/aeodu.en.html

Brainy Quote. (2009). Wangari Maathai quotes. Retrieved February 1st 2009 from www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/w/wangari_maathai.html

Delaney, D. (2002). Oil Depletion. Retrieved January 26th 2009 from www.geocities.com/davidmdelaney/oil-depletion/oil-depletion.html

UNESCO (2005). Education for Sustainable development. Retrieved January 30th 2009 from www.unesco.org/education/desd

Wikipedia. (2009). Kyoto Protocol. Retrieved January 29th 2009 from www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol

Wikipedia. (2009). Sustainability. Retrieved January 29th 2009 from www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability

Wikipedia. (2009). Population growth rates. Retrieved January 20th 2009 from www.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_population_growth_rates_1800-2005_png

UNFCCC. (2008). Kyoto Protocol. Retrieved January 26th 2009 from www.unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php

International Institute for Environment and development. (2008). Climate change. Retrieved January 12th 2009 from www.iied.org/climate-change/home

¹ppm – one part per million.

Institute of Advanced Management and Technology

Introduction

Most of the dissolved chemical constituents or salts found in seawater have a continental origin. It seems that these chemicals were released from continental rocks through weathering and then carried to the oceans by stream runoff. Over time, the concentration of these chemicals increased until equilibrium was met. This equilibrium occurred when the ocean’s water could not dissolve any more material in solution. Similarities between fossilized sea life and organisms living today indicate that the composition of seawater stopped changing drastically about 600 million years ago.

Seawater Agriculture

It is, however, evidence that as the population of the Earth increases, the production of food becomes more and more of a problem in order to feed this growing number of people. One of the specific problems facing agriculturalists is the need for water. Fresh water is needed not only for irrigation but also for other human activities, and there is no process that is effective enough at desalinization to provide the volume of water human beings need. It is very important to also note that the top five plants eaten by people cannot tolerate salt, and these are wheat, corn, rice, potatoes, and soybeans. Since finding enough land and water to produce the foods needed by the world is an urgent problem, my concern now is how the supply of food can be augmented. My suggestion of one way is to find edible plants which can tolerate saltwater.

My essay is submitted with an intention to address the feasibility of seawater agriculture, which I conclude works well in the sandy soils of the desert environment. Seawater agriculture is defined as growing salt-tolerant crops on land with water pumped from the ocean for irrigation. Desert land is plentiful, and so is seawater. However, only a small portion of available desert is close enough to the sea to make such irrigation worthwhile. My estimates stand that 15 percent of undeveloped land in the world comprises coastal and inland salt deserts.

This is proven on the western coast of Mexico. The team irrigated the plants daily by flooding the fields with high-saline seawater from the Gulf of California. The rainfall in the region averages only 90 millimeters a year. The team flooded the plots with an annual depth of 20 meters or more of seawater. The team was certain that the plants were growing almost solely on seawater. The yields varied among the species, and the most productive halophytes produced between one and two kilograms per square meter of dry biomass. This is roughly the yield of alfalfa grown using freshwater irrigation. However, to show that these halophytes were cost-effective, it was necessary to show that they could replace conventional crops for a specific use. The team thus tested whether halophytes could be used to feed livestock, and this was important in itself because finding enough forage for cattle, sheep, and goats is one of the most challenging problems facing the world today. Many halophytes would serve in that they have high levels of protein and digestible carbohydrates, but unfortunately, these plants also contain large amounts of salt. One of the ways these plants adjust to a saline environment is to accumulate salt. Salt has no calories.

Victor Sunday and Onyemachi Praise K. C.
University of Port Harcourt
Choba, Rivers State, Nigeria

Abstract

It is not an over statement that the modern man attaches much importance to his immediate environment. This is obvious in the way he is concerned with environmental distortions, hazards, disasters etc, some of which he could handle by himself; and needs the services of experts to combat other seemingly difficult environmental imbalances. Such environmental distortions like climate change, earthquakes, flooding and mudslides, erosions, landslides etc jeopardize man’s effort to avert these problems. It is sad to know that erosion in the south east geopolitical zone of Nigeria is a rampant issue and a menace. Erosion sites are not rare in all the states that constitute the zone, especially in Umuahia, the capital city of Abia State. Environmental monitoring, mapping and protection of erosion sites in the zone have created much awareness that this challenge could be controlled, and others saved. This study aims at monitoring, mapping, and protecting these erosion menaces in Umuahia, and other sites in the south east states of Nigeria, could be controlled through monitoring, mapping and protection; using remote sensing, digital satellite mapping and geographic information system (GIS) to control natural disasters like gully erosion in south eastern Nigeria, especially Umuahia.

Introduction

Globally, environmental issues have become major concerns to governments and citizens of various nations, including Nigeria. The environment, which is at the heart of economic, social, cultural and human activities, has been disrupted by man’s neglect and abuse of the environment. Pollution, deforestation, erosion, landslides, global warming etc are the aftermaths of this abuse in the ecosystem. The issue of protection, mapping and monitoring becomes paramount in the face of the increasing population resident in the south east geopolitical zone of the country. They are severely impoverished, particularly the rural dwellers due to environmental degradation and to increasing population impact on the environmental resources. Umuahia is a case study.

The environmental resources, most especially the land and soil resources are greatly threatened by soil and gully erosion. The topographical setting of the area, which is located within the tropics, and has high population density, is among the major factors that may trigger the genetic history of the area. Waugh, (1995) stated that “natural (environmental) balance is being disturbed by mismanagement with increasing frequency and serious consequences”. Recent estimates suggest that about seven per cent (7%) of the world’s topsoil is lost yearly to erosion in all ramifications. In fact, the World Resources Institute claims that Burkina Faso loses 25 tonnes of soil per hectare per year (Kalu 2001. 3). Other reports on this issue reveal that Ethiopia loses 42 tonnes, Nepal 70, Decan Plateau (India) 100, and Loess Plateau of north China 251 tonnes (Waugh 1995). Also, the soil survey of England and Wales claims that 44 per cent of arable soils in the United Kingdom, an area once considered not to be under threat, are now at risk.

In Nigeria, Agulu-Nanka in Anambra State is an area badly affected by water erosion — up to 250 tonnes per hectare have been lost in severe storms. Other comparable erosion sites are Ebem – Ohafia: about 150 tonnes/hectare (under control), and Isukwuato gully erosion comprising six major erosion sites. These sites are Ugwuntu, Ogudasaa, Amokwe. Amaiyi – Ohuu 1 and 2, Ahaba, Umunnekwu Agbo, and Abia State University Uturu Campus (Kalu 2001.3).

Fig. 1 Amuzukwu-Mbom Erosion Site (Over 10m deep)	Fig. 2 Ajata-Iyienyi Erosion Site (covered by vegetation naturally checking the menace, over 25m deep)

Umuahia region comprises Umuahia North and South Local Government Areas that make the capital city of Abia State. Seven (7) major gully erosion sites have been identified: Amuzukwu – Mbom, Isieke, Isiadu – Amaeke, Amuzuoro Okwuta, Ajata – Iyieny (Figs.1 – 6), and Umunwanwa; with Amuzukwu – Mbom gully cutting off the road linking Amuzukwu and Mbom communities, respectively; destroying arable land for agricultural purposes. The above mentioned erosion sites are found in the southeastern part of the country, hence the call for environmental monitoring, mapping and protection of erosion sites before they get out of control. It is in this regard that the Federal Government of Nigeria in its renewed interest to find a lasting solution to the ecological disequilibrium in the country necessitated the study objectives of the subject – Environmental Monitoring, Mapping and Protection of Erosion Sites (Erosion Disaster) in Parts of Southeastern Nigeria– Umuahia as a case study.

In this paper, the issues in protecting, mapping and monitoring are addressed to solve the problem of gully erosion in southeastern Nigeria, particularly in Umuahia. These issues will be examined as an approach to environmental protection, mapping and monitoring of gully erosion in the region.

Fig. 3 Isieke Erosion Site (Over 25m deep)	Fig. 4 Amuzuoro Erosion Site threatening the road to the community (over 20m deep)

Impact of Erosion Sites in Umuahia

Soil – gully erosion involves the processes of detachment of soil particles from the parent soil mass, transportation of the detached materials down slope and deposition of the particles (Ellison 1946). As soil – gully erosion is a perfectly natural phenomenon, erosion processes require energy input. In Umuahia, the primary agent generating the energy is rain water; operations such as splash and overland flow. The raindrop striking on the soil surface expends its kinetic energy in detaching soil particles. The erosion sites identified in Umuahia are mainly rural, located in areas whose primary occupation is farming. Unfortunately, these sites involve lands used by these rural dwellers for agricultural purposes (farming), which has been harmed by the devastating effects of gully erosion.

A systematic study of these erosion sites reveals that some roads in these places are being threatened by the disaster. For instance, Amuzukwu – Mbom road, which was motorable before, has completely been cut off so that the two communities cannot interact with each other (Fig. 1). Also Ajata – Iyienyi gully is threatening the Bende road that links Umuahia to Bende Local Government Area (Fig. 2). It is in the light of these that environmental monitoring, mapping and protection of erosion sites are imperative. In this region, the primary occupation of the areas within these sites has been reduced as a result of this devastating effect– the erosion that has claimed acres of land meant for agriculture (farming).

Fig. 5 Okwuta Erosion Site (over 25m deep)	Fig. 6 Amaeke-Isiadu Erosion Site (over 20m deep)

Environmental Monitoring Of Erosion Sites in South East Nigeria (Umuahia)

The federal government through its agency known as the National Space Research and Development Agency, in a workshop on”Comprehensive Mapping and Monitoring of the Impact of Gully Erosion Problems in Southeastern Nigeria”, reiterated its commitment to tackle gully erosion problems in the region with Umuahia not left out. The move includes establishing a strong monitoring team. The use of satellite observation with spatial resolution using (Nigerian Sat 1) and other indices like geographic information system (GIS) techniques provide periodic inspection across the region by the monitoring team and complementary satellite observation and monitoring. With all these measures put in place, environmental monitoring, mapping and protection of erosion (erosion disaster) in part of southeastern Nigeria will bring a deep relief to the occupants of the affected areas, and salvage the situation to prevent further damages and losses of agricultural lands.

Conclusion

Several erosion sites were identified in the region. The population of residents and their activities in the areas already prone to this natural disaster facilitated massive gully erosion actions. The consequences have far reaching impacts on the socio-economic, cultural and political well-being of the population in the region. A lot of damage was observed and expectations are high for the federal government’s preparedness to control the massive gully erosion sites on a large scale through various modalities like remote sensing (satellite observation and geographic information system (GIS) as well as regular field inspection on these sites.

References

Ellison, W. D. (1946). “Soil Detachment and Transportation”, cited in Land Use and Conservation in Nigeria, University of Nigeria Press, Nsukka. Pp. 81.

Obienusi, E. A. and Ahiadu, H. O (2008). “Conservation, Management and Monitoring of Gully Erosion in South Eastern Nigeria”. A paper submitted for presentation at a workshop on “Comprehensive Mapping of the Impact of Gully Erosion In South Eastern Nigeria Using Satellite Remote Sensing and GIS Technique 2008″. Department of Geography and Meteorology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Akwa, Anambra State.

Kalu A. O (2001). “Soil Erosion and Landslide: 21st Century Environmental Issues and Challenges to rural Development in Nigeria”. Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Abia State University, Uturu, Abia State. MURP, seminar paper unpublished.

Waugh (1995) quoted by Kalu A. O in “Soil Erosion and Landslide: 21st Century Environmental Issues and Challenges to Rural Development in Nigeria.”

University of Toledo

Energy is the ability to work and is available in different forms. Energy is the most discussed and influential topic for the last few decades. Electrical Energy is the life to technology. Several forms of available energy is used for the generation of electricity which is then transmitted from generating station to the load through long transmission lines. Generation and transmission of electrical energy involve many operational and conducting losses. Demand for Energy by the commercial and industrial load will be very high at a particular period of time, which is termed as the peak period. Utility companies have to supply a huge amount of additional energy in order to meet the peak load requirement. At this period, generating units operate at full capacity affecting the reliability of the whole power system. Adoption and implementation of smart energy management techniques conserve a major portion of energy consumption, enhance energy security, improve efficiency, and help utility companies manage generation and transmission during the peak period.  Implementation of such techniques in household level saves a lot of money on utility bills in and also helps achieve green and zero energy houses [1].

Supply and Demand of Electrical Energy

Utility companies discourage wastage or unwanted usage of electricity during peak load by imposing relatively high tariff for the energy consumed during peak period. Utility companies provide incentives to the customers by offering electricity at a low billing rate during off peak periods. Electric power supplied in Ontario on the 26^th of April 2009 is 17000 MW from 11 AM to 5 PM during peak load and 11500 MW at 3 AM during off-peak load [2]. These values show that exploring an alternative solution for being dependent on the grid at peak period and opting for efficient utilization and co-generation of energy enhances the reliable operation of generation, transmission and distribution equipment of the utility company. By the year 2030, demand for electrical energy in the United States is expected to reach 5,064 billion kWh with a total increase of 1317 billion kWh compared to 2007 [3]. But, we have identified only half of the total required resources for generation of electricity by that time. To meet the required demand of energy, distributed generation and smart energy management has to be adopted.

Available co-generation and storage options

• Renewable energy sources like solar panels and wind turbines can substitute for the energy from distribution grid. In many places, solar and wind energies are unreliable, uncertain, and discontinuous sources of energy. In spite of such disadvantages theses sources of energy are renewable, clean, sustainable and have got many advantages over conventional fossil fuels in their long term operation as co-generation units.

• A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid vehicle with a connecting plug to charge the internal batteries from an external power source. A fully charged PHEV operates on electric power until the batteries are depleted and then the internal combustion engine will start to work. PHEVs are fuel efficient and may require only about 25% as much energy as cars that consume gasoline. Off-peak electricity is used for charging these cars and that energy can be used for operating the car or the energy can also be fed back to the grid during the peak load.
• Compressed Air Energy Storage systems allow compression of air into an underground air-storage vessel using off-peak electrical power and later this air can be used to operate a gas-fired turbine generator complex to generate electricity during the peak period.
• Proper management of water can be done by storing the water in overhead water tanks using the electric pump that we use for getting water to the home from a utility company. By pumping this water during off peak period, electricity is stored in the form of potential energy. Water stored in the overhead tank can be used all day without any pumping device.

Smart energy management

The strategy is to utilize solar energy, wind energy, compressed air energy storage, and PHEVs through proper management tools during peak load as shown in fig.1. During the off peak period, a portion of electricity from the grid is used for operation of compressed air storage devices, charging PHEVs and for water management. During the off peak period, generated electrical energy from solar panels, and wind turbines is stored in the batteries. During the peak period, the energy stored and generated in the form of D.C  is inverted into A.C. form of electrical energy and can be utilized for household purposes. If the electricity generated exceeds total utilization of the household, then this surplus energy can be supplied to the distribution grid. Though the quantity of energy conserved might be small when compared to total household consumption, this would be a great contribution to the utility company, as we are trying to reduce the load on the generation unit instead of being an additional load. These processes would bring a huge impact on the generating and distribution system after successful implementation and operation. Power system security and reliability are major concerns for any utility company. Many household appliances that we use inject unwanted harmonics into the feeder which affects the power quality. So, harmonics induced because of a particular load can be reduced by limiting them to their own entity by integrating energy storage devices. Decentralized generation reduces transmission and distribution losses, improves power quality and the load balance during peak period.

Smart meter

Smart meter is an advanced energy meter that identifies consumption of electricity with more details and parameters compared to the conventional meter and can communicate this data with a utility company. Smart meter manages and controls energy from the grid, all the co-generation units and household appliances. Emerging software technologies can be used to program the smart meters to control and manage all the components according to the load demand. Adoption of smart meters will enable customers to find the quantity and cost of energy that is being consumed at that point of time. Smart meter allow customers to enable or disable the supply of electricity for all home appliances. During the peak period, smart meter helps us conserve a lot of un-utilized energy by reminding us about the total household energy consumption and suggests disabling of power supply to some appliances. After a few reminders, if the customer does not request for holding the power supply, supply of electricity to some preselected appliances will be disabled. In many proposed models of smart meters, customers can remotely monitor and control all home appliances by enabling or disabling the electricity supply.

Fig.1. Components of smart energy management

Capital cost and savings
From a Customer or neighborhood point of view, capital cost involves investment on installing the smart meters, implementing the compressed air storage system, installation of solar panels, wind turbines, storage batteries, buying and integrating the PHEVs. Total investment on the equipment depends on the quantity of energy to be generated and stored. Cost on the investment for integrating co-generation and energy storage devices is paid back in the form of incentives from the government and savings in the utility bill. From the tariff chart of Orange & Rockland, customers were charged 1.28 cents/kWh during off-peak period from 9:00 PM to 10:00 AM and as high as 19.889 cents/kWh during peak load from 12:00 PM to 7:00 PM [4] for the months of June through September. Opting for co-generation and efficient utilization of energy during the peak period saves a lot of money on the utility bill to customers. Conserving a small amount of electricity by all households shaves a considerable amount of the load irregularities during the peak period.

Theft of electricity

Theft of Electricity has a huge impact on the power quality, energy audit, Tampering with the meters and tapping of energy directly from a distribution feeder bypassing the energy meter were most commonly adopted ways of pilfering electricity. Electronic and electromagnetic meters are still used for the billing of household energy usage in many parts of the world. Electromagnetic meters can be tampered by installing a shunt between the incoming and outgoing meter terminals. Radio frequency devices are installed to influence the accuracy of the meter reading. In the case of electronic meters, electrostatic charges are injected or they can be exposed to strong magnetic fields to wipe out the meter’s memory. In the United States, about $1 billion worth of electricity is pilfered each year, which accounts for 0.5-3% of the total revenue [5] . Portions of these losses for the utility company will be borne by genuine customers. So, traditional energy meters were to be replaced by tamper proof smart meters in order to reduce the theft of electricity.

Effect on Environment

The objective of achieving green and energy efficient households can be made more viable using renewable energy sources and smart energy management technologies. The possible implementation of compressed air energy storage depends on the environment, location, and availability of land. Though this technology uses a portion of unused land, it is of not much impact on the environment when compared to the total energy that is being conserved using smart management of electricity. Conserving a small quantity of electricity generated from the fossil fuels will have a positive impact on the environment. Conservation of un-utilized energy and using renewable generation technologies reduces emission of pollutants and environmental wastes into the atmosphere enhancing the ecological balance.

References

[1] “Zero Energy Home Design,” US Department of Energy, [Online]. Available:http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/designing_remodeling/index.cfm/mytopic=10360. [Accessed: Sep.25, 2009].

[2] “Ontario’s Micro generation Feed-Tariff,” Virtual Nonsense, [Online]. Available: http://renaud.ca/wordpress/?cat=3. [Accessed: Oct 13, 2009].

[3] “Annual Energy Outlook 2009 with Projections to 2030,” US Department of Energy, [Online]. Available: http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/pdf/table18.pdf. [Accessed: Sep. 22, 2009].

[4] “Time of Use Rate,” Orange & Rockland, [Online]. Available: http://www.oru.com/programsandservices/incentivesandrebates/timeofuse.html. [Accessed: Sep. 15, 2009].

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Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology

Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology

Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

Society today must face the question of whether it can sustain opportunity and freedom and quality of life generally. Engineers, who design the means by which society provides for its needs, must have an especially clear grasp of the question, set forth if possible in terms readily assimilated by engineering considerations.

Resource issues have perhaps the broadest practical implications of any we face, as citizens or as engineers. Traditional industrial technology has always depended on sheer volume of resources to overwhelm problems, and engineers have always been trained to think along those lines. In the face of limits becoming obvious today, the old industrial paradigm of unlimited growth is unsustainable, since it requires unlimited drawdowns of limited planetary resource storages, and unlimited environmental capacity to absorb externalities. Engineering conceived in terms of that paradigm is likewise unsustainable. What we need is an entirely new paradigm for the way we design industrial technology, and that paradigm is sustainability. To achieve sustainability, we need sustainable engineering.

Many serious difficulties confront our world, and we hear predictions of disaster. “But the future is not inevitability; it is a choice”. We do not face disaster unless we make disastrous choices. Engineers bear a special responsibility to inform society regarding the practical implications of its choices. The sustainability of ecosystems (including the human component) is perhaps the most pressing question in environmental management today. From the effects of environmental change to the viability of human development, we are facing radically new questions about the relationship between environment and society. Even though we have progressed by leaps and bounds what remains is a humble look into the needs of our coming generations, “the importance of earth observation lies in the very fact that it gives a lucid idea about the changing face of Earth”. Satellites support businesses for sustainable development and help to measure the changes on a wider scale. Once the levels of consumption and degradation are measured, a set optimal level of each must be agreed upon or else the findings are rendered useless, thus leading to a sustainable society around. The Earth’s life support systems are in peril. As a species, humans are not living sustainably and are accelerating towards collapse of the natural capital on which human society and its economy depends. Though it is not always heard, sustainable development is an urgent issue, and has been for many years, though political will has been slow-paced at best.

Society has valued industrial technology because society has perceived industry as offering choices. At the same time, industry has created problems we can no longer avoid. The list is familiar: acid rain, toxic waste, greenhouse effect, resource exhaustion, etc. Some people insist that to maintain the benefits of industry, we must continue designing and using technology in the same outmoded and increasingly dangerous way. Those who believe instead that the future is a choice know we can fully understand our alternatives only through more realistic engineering analysis, creating the basis for a new engineering that offers genuine technical and social alternatives responsive to actual needs. It makes quite a difference whether you look at sustainable development as just an environmental issue, or alternatively as a multidimensional challenge in the three dimensions: economic, environmental, and social.

How should we conceive of sustainable engineering? What does it mean, and what kinds of technologies does it imply? To answer these questions, we need a resource oriented variation of a concept that ecologists refer to as “carrying capacity.” When properly modified, the idea of carrying capacity enables us to formulate a very clear generalized definition of sustainability. The term “carrying capacity” originated in entirely new field of population biology, and ordinarily it is defined in terms of the population being carried by the resources of an environment. We must instead conceive of it in terms of the resources that carry the population and the consumption of (impact on) those resources by the population.

It is crucial to understand that the history of the last ten thousand years or so has been the history of more or less deliberate human attempts to evade the establishment of a stabilized phase for the human species, which apparently had reached a critical population density in most areas of the world about 10,000 years ago. At that time, human population density was reaching a point that forced human groups to choose whether to limit population and continue their primal (hunting-gathering) lifestyle in a stable, biologically diverse environment, or develop agriculture and support an endlessly increasing population in an ever more intensely stressed environment. Ecologically, this was a choice between the dependable high biomass/production ratio characterizing natural ecosystems and the precarious high production/biomass ratio that old paradigm agriculture desperately strives to maintain as it inevitably approaches the Liebig limit of the soil. As we know, the predominating human choice was agriculture and unlimited population growth, generally following the exponential trend typical of agricultural population growth, and inevitably resulting in our familiar human history of periodic famine and war along with constant political tyranny in most times and places.

There has been an adverse effect on the biodiversity and climate around the world, here again earth observation has helped us to keep a vigil on changing statistics, and helped us frame future policies. Research experiments had shown that concentrations of carbon dioxide began rising about 8,000 years ago. Around 3,000 years later, methane levels also began climbing. Both carbon dioxide and methane are heat trapping gases that contribute to the global warming problem. It is thought that human activity related to farming, primarily agricultural deforestation and crop irrigation, could have helped spike the methane and carbon dioxide levels in the earth.

The environmental problems stem from the activities concerned with agriculture, manufacturing, extraction, transportation, housing, energy, and services — all driven by the demand of consumers, commercial entities, and government. But in addition, there are effects of these activities on the amount, security, and skill of employment, the nature and conditions of work, and purchasing power associated with wages. An increasing concern is economic inequity stemming from inadequate and unequal purchasing power within and between nations – and for the workers/citizens of the future.

At a global level, inequity and inequality of opportunity lie at the heart of global instability, terror and wars. If the world is to survive and prosper, there will need to be a drastic change in conventional values, economic structures and social arrangements. Developed nations must also help underdeveloped nations to plan development in the context of the globalised interdependence of all human populations on each other and on the natural world. There must now be a transition towards sustainability.

“Together we can and we will make a difference”.